Prompt: Evaluate the extent to which various peoples pursued independence after 1900.

Document 1

Source: Muhammad Ali Jinnah, leader of the All-India Muslim League, an organization of Indian Muslims that had split from the Indian National Congress, address to a meeting of the League, March 1940

“The British . . . have for many decades had settled notions about India’s future. Their concept of party government and parliamentary rule has become the ideal with them as the best form of government for every country. . . .

It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism. It is only a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality. This misconception of one Indian nation will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims in India belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, literatures. . . . They have different epics and different heroes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be built up for the government of such a state.”

Document 2

Source: Map of "Colonial Affiliations Before 1914", The University of Iowa.

Document 3

Source: Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Viet Nam, 1945

“The Declaration of the French Revolution made in 1791 on the Rights of Man and the Citizen also states: ‘All men are born free and with equal rights, and must always remain free and have equal rights.’

“Nevertheless for more than eighty years, the French imperialists, abusing the standard of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity, have violated our Fatherland and oppressed our fellow-citizens. They have acted contrary to the ideals of humanity and justice.”

Document 4

Source:. Speech by President Nasser, Alexandria, July 26, 1956.

Egypt--the whole of Egypt--one national front--one unified and solid front--announces that it will fight to the last drop of its blood... We shall all fight to the last drop of our blood for building our country, for the sake of Egypt. We shall not let war mongers, imperialists or those who trade in human beings dominate us. We shall depend on our hands and on our blood. We are rich, but we were careless. We shall restore these rights. The battle continues. We shall restore these rights step by step. We shall realise everything. We shall build a strong and dignified Egypt, the Arab Egypt.

Document 5

Source: Marie-Aimée Helie-Lucas, participant in the Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962) waged against French colonial rule, paper presented to the International Symposium on Women and the Military System, Siunto Baths, Finland, 1987.

So much for Fanon’s [Frantz Fanon, author of The Wretched of the Earth and other writings on the experience of the colonized] and others’ myth of the Algerian woman liberated along with her country. The liberated women were in the kitchen, they were sewing clothes (or flags?), carrying parcels, typing. Nevertheless, since there was “no humble task in the revolution” we did not dispute the roles we had. It would have been mean to question the priority of liberating the country, since independence would surely bring an end to discrimination against women. What makes me angrier in retrospect is not women’s confinement but the brainwashing that did not allow us young women even to think of questioning. What makes me angrier still is to witness the replication of this situation in other struggles for independence. It angers me to see women covering the misbehavior of their fellow men and hiding, in the name of national solidarity and identity, crimes which will be perpetuated after independence.

This is the real harm which comes with liberation struggles. The overall task of women during liberation is seen as symbolic. Faced with colonization the people have to build a national identity based on their own values, traditions, religion, language and culture.

Document 6

Source: Manmohini Zutshi Saghal, participant in the Indian struggle for independence, An Indian Freedom Fighter Recalls Her Life, 1994.

In March 1922 Gandhi was arrested and sentenced to six years of imprisonment. He was released on January 12, 1924, before the expiration of his term. This earlier noncooperation movement was confined largely to men and was less extensive than the satyagraha [literally “truth-force,” referring to the nonviolent resistance approach developed by Gandhi] movement of 1930-32. Women were expected to participate in processions and attend all Congress meetings, however, so with mother and my two older sisters, Chandra and Janak, I used to join all such functions. I would like my readers to visualize the restricted life women led, even in a province as progressive as the Punjab. Women hardly ever ventured beyond four walls of their homes, except to visit relatives or to attend a religious festival. My mother’s aunt always wore a shawl over her sari when she went visiting. I suppose that could be considered as a sort of Hindu burqa [cloak worn by secluded women] although her face was left uncovered. In that atmosphere, for the women to leave their homes and walk in a procession was a big step forward….Later, these women would come into their own and storm the citadels of the mighty British Empire.

Document 7

Source: Wambui Otieno, Kenyan activist, description of her participation in the Mau Mau uprising against British rule in Kenya in the early 1950s, included in an autobiography published in 1998.

“As a sixteen-year-old schoolgirl, I did not know much about being a freedom fighter, although I read nationalist newspapers and knew about the pronouncements of Jomo Kenyatta.* I read his book and Kenyatta himself was a frequent visitor to our home. He would talk to my father for hours on end. But, as children, we did not know what they were discussing. By the time the British declared a state of emergency in Kenya, I had already taken my first oath to the Mau Mau cause. Repeating carefully after the instructor, I swore to:

1. Fight for the soil of Kenya, which had been stolen by the Whites.

2. If possible, get a gun and any other valuables or money to help strengthen the movement.

3. Kill anyone who was against the movement, even if that person was my brother.

The state of emergency and the fighting kept me from studying abroad and joining my sister and brothers, who were studying in England. Finding myself with more time on my hands, I became even more eager to learn about freedom activities and felt even more commitment to Mau Mau, convinced that it was the only way that Kenya could be free.

*a Kenyan nationalist and independence leader

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